Title: BV4 / Modul 4 / Komplexa hjärnfunktioner

Q: WHat did Korbinian Brodmann do 1809?
A: - First person to categorize the brain based on histology through a microscope
- Made the cytoarchitectual dividsion of the human barin cortex

Q: How many brodmann areas are there?
A: 1-47

Q: How did brodmann divide the brain into 47 areas?
A: Based on cytoarchitecture, like:
There are differnet patterns based on histology, lamina, celltypes , how the neurons are organized into different lamina in different areas, and this map is based o this info

Q: What is a strong source of how higher cognitive functions work?
A: Higher cognitive functions come from lesion studies - strong source of info on of how the brain works

Q: WHat type of study did Paul Broca conduct?
A: Studies of brain function from lesions
- Patients brain had a language problem, could only say a couple of words maybe - caused by syphilis
- The lesion was found when the patient died, and the patients language problems was concluded bc of lesions in brocas(?)

Q: What si anomic aphasia?
A: Anomic aphaisa is a language naming disorder where one has trouble naming objects when speaking or writing

Q: What is apraxia?
A: Apraxia of speech is sometimes called verbal apraxia - is a speech and sound disorder where patinets have problems to translate continuous speech plans into motor plans

Q: What does this patient have problems with?
A: Lesion in left hemisphere - patient with anomic aphasia and apraxia of speech

Q: WHat is broca's are responsible for?
A: Broca's is responsible for production of language

Q: WHat is wernicke's area related to?
A: Wernickes area is related to the comprehension of speech, both written and spoken language - is the vocabulary

Q: What is wernicke's connected to?
A: Wernickes is connected to broca

Q: What is Broca's connected to?
A: Broca is connected to motor
cortex to be able to produce speech

Q: What can be said about paths where info flows in the brain?
A: There seems to be 2 differnt paths in which neuronal (visional?) information flows in the brain

Q: Where do the paths conveying visional/neuronal input start?
A: Both start in V1, the primary visual cortex, along the calcarine fssure in BA17 - Is responsible for most of the retinal input, it goes to V1

Q: Where in the brain does most of the retinal input go?
A: V1

Q: Which is the more dorsal neuronal/visual pathway?
A: There is a more dorsal path called a where-path, which is about where in the visual field things are present

Q: Which is the more ventral neuronal/visual pathway?
A: There is a more ventral path called the "what path" , which has more to do with what we see (objects)

Q: What does the where-path convey?
A: Where in the visual field things are presnet

Q: What does the what-path convey?
A: Has more to do with what we see (objects)

Q: Where do neuronal information go from V1?
A: From V1 there is a lot of neuronal comminucation to the V2 (secondary visual cortex/prestriate cortex)

Q: What is the V2/prestriate cortex?
A: The first visual association areas

Q: What happens in V2?
A: These visual association areas react to the spatial
orientation of visual stimuli, the color spatial frequency of visual
stimualtion and complex pattern recognization in the visual input

Q: What is another name for V2?
A: Prestriate cortex

Q: Where does the info go after the V2?
A: Then the ifno goes to 2 different places, V3 and V4
- V3 for the where path
- V4 for the what path

Q: WHere does info go from the V2 in the where-path?
A: V3

Q: WHere does info go from the V2 in the what-path?
A: V4

Q: What is V4 sensitive to?
A: V4,  is like V2 sensitive to spatial frequency in the visual input, the frequency of the pattern

Q: Where does info in the what-path go after the V4?
A: Then the info from V4 goes to the infratemporal cortex where the representation for objects, faces and places etc. is

Q: Where does the infro from the V3 go after in the where-path?
A: The information from V3 goes to the parietal cortex, to the V5/MT(middle temporal visual area)

Q: What is the V5/MT - middle temporal visual area related to?
A: It is related to perception of motion, also
helps to guide eye movements together with the visual frontal eye fields, more
situated in the frontal cortex

Q: Which lobes are important for visual understanding?
A: - Temporal cortex
- Parietal cortex

Q: How are the temporal and parietal cortices important for visual processing?
A: The temporal and parietal cortices are important for us to understand what we are looking at, and where in our visual field it is moving or not moving

Q: Which structures does the where-path pass through during processing?
A: V1 -> V2 -> V3 -> MT (V5)

Q: Which structures does the what-path pass through during processing?
A: V1 -> V2 -> V4 -> infratemporal cortex

Q: What does fMRI stand for?
A: Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Q: What is a non-invasive technique used to look at the brain?
A: Among others MRI, fMRI

Q: What can fMRI be sensitive to?
A: Images can also be sensitive to bloodflow - how much deoxygenated hemoglobin there is in the brain - this is an indirect measure of brain function

Q: WHy is deoxygenated hemoglobindetected with fMRI an indirect measure of brain function?
A: In order to function and signal, neurons need O2 and nutrients from the arteries
- When they process stimuli they need more O2, and as a result we get more deoxygenated hemoglobin
- We can track how the blood flow and oxygenation in the brain is changing

Q: WHat is an ex. of a higher cognitive function?
A: Facial recognition

Q: Where is face processing done in the brain?
A: The fusiforme face area

Q: What is prosopagnosia?
A: The inability to process/recognize faces

Q: HOw can facial recognition be measured in the brain?
A: This is how the facial recognition can be measured in the brain, we have periods of looking at faces and periods of looking at scrambeled faces - doing this we can get an estimate of which brain regions are active in the brain during facial recognition

Q: Where is the fusiforme face area located?
A: In the inferior temporal cortex of the what-path

Q: What is seen in this image?
A: Activity in the fusiforme face area, in the inferior temporal cortex of the what-path
- This is how we can use noninvasive neurological technique

Q: HOw can Broca's area be located in the brain, no invasively?
A: Using fMRI

Q: WHere can broca's area be found in the brain?
A: Is in the inferior frontal gyrus, usually on the left side

Q: What is word generation?
A: Observe noun, generate ex. of associated verb

Q: What is this picture showing?
A: Which regions of the brainare involved in word generation vs word shadowing
(In this pic left is left and right is right)

Q: What is normally don ebefore certain brain surgeries?
A: Before the surgery u wanna do a preop localisation on language, which areas are sensitive in this patient for language - To see if language is lateralised to the left side, which it normally is
(fMRI is used)

Q: How can activity be seen in Wernickes area using fMRI?
A: Another ex. on other patients is on passive listening tasks, too see activity in wernickes area and visual and motor cortices

Q: What can be said about the relationship between brain functions?
A: There isnt a just 1:1 relationship between brain functions

Q: What is done to achieve this response in the brain?
A: In this case is to find the localisation of the vascular malformation to the motor cortex, pat tapped fingers compared to rest on both hands vs each other
- Showing activity of AVM, left superior frontal gyrus

Q: What does the anterior cingulate cortex do?
A: The ACC is involvd in almost everything like;
- Pain
- Attention to allocation
- Reward anticipation
- Desicion-making
- Ethis
- Morality
- Impulse control mechanisms
- Emotional contents
- Its hard to say what it actually does, its involved in many different cognitive functions

Q: Where is the precuneus area found?
A: - BA7

Q: WHich subdivisions dos the precuneus consist of?
A: Consists of 3 different subdividsions
- The sensorymotor anterior region, in blue
- Cogantive associative central region
- Visual posterior region, yellow

Q: How is the precuneus a connection?
A: There are connection through the brain to differnet areas in this region (precuneus)

Q: What is the precuneus involved in?
A: The precuneus is involved in memory metal imaginary, itch activates it, visuo-spatial processing, self awareness, central for consiousness and being aware oneself

Q: What can be said about making a 1:1 correspondance between differnet brain regions and a function?
A: Whne it comes to higher cognitive functions it's not very easy to make a 1:1 correspondance between a particular brain region and a function
- Ex. easier in visual areas, more difficult in higher auditory cortex areas
- Many brain regions are involved in many different things

Q: What types of networks are there in the brain?
A: - Structural networks
- Functional networks

Q: What is a structual network?
A: There are structuonal networks where u look at the anatomy u look at the fiber bundles, the axons that connect different neurons and u see where the axons connects to neuron B, A and B can also be different brain regions

Q: How are structural networks connected?
A: They are connected if there is a physical connection

Q: How can active networks in the brain be connected?
A: If u ahve networks that are active in the brain, they can be connected in different ways, eg. regions in blue are more connected to each other than the red ones, more internally connected, so they presumaly will have differnet rods in the brain

Q: What are functional networks?
A: If A and B fora measure of time, if we think that a signal looks very similar between A and B, and the corrolation between them is high we might think that they are connetced

Q: How are functional networks connected?
A: A and B are connected based on their correlation of activity

Q: How are Structual networks connected?
A: Regions A and B are connected of there is a physical connection

Q: What can be said about functional connectivity?
A: Doesn't only have to be based on correlative measures, it can also be more direct measures of inference of one region to another

Q: What is network cognitive neuroscience?
A: Trying to understand how the
brain works by modelling it using a framework of networks

Q: What is a brain connectome?
A: A connectome is a comprehensive map of neuronal pathways/connections in the brain

Q: How can connectomes be studied?
A: Connectomes can be studied at different (micro-, meso- and macro) scales in different species

Q: WHat do we believe connectomes are important for?
A: We belive connectomes are very important when it comes to understanding the brain, higher congitive functions

Q: How can connectomes be studied at a micro scale?
A: Micro - with fMRI, or down to single neurons micro levels in differnet species

Q: What is a typical animal model for understanding animal development?
A: Roundworm is used as a model for understanding anmial development

Q: How many neurons does the human brain have?
A: ca 85 billion neurons, 10^15 synapses

Q: What can be said about the characteristics of a nematode?
A: - Dosnt ave any respiratory or circulatory organs
- 35% of our genes are shared with this
- Genome contains 20470 genes
- Model orgamisn for molecular evelopment of animals

Q: What does this image show?
A: The connectome of a roundworm
- The differnt symbols mark different chemical neurons with differnet functions, the lines between signal that there are electrical or chemical connections between them

Q: What does this image show?
A: Another mamp showing the same data
U can see some order in this, some neurons are more related to movements, other somatosensory - most of them are giving input to the motor system

Q: What does the brain structures look like in pigeons?
A: There is no folding in doves, there is lamina structure along the cortex of dove, but still same organisation as in human brain

Q: What are some birds capable of?
A: SOme brids are capable of too manufacturing, planning for future needs, mirror self recognition, long term recognition

Q: What does this image show?
A: Structual brain connectomics in pigeon
- Green is connetction, blue is no connection - some areas seem to be clustered
- A way to see how tings are connected

Q: What does this iamge shown?
A: Hierarchy of visual areaas in trhe macaque brain
- All brain areas in the maquace brain
- This is done by histology techniques

Q: What can be said about diffusion tensor imaging?
A: Non-invasive

Q: What can be said about water and MRI?
A: - We are sensitive to how water is bound in the human body with MRI
- We can make the signal stronger if the water in each and every box of each image element is flowing in a certain direction

Q: What is anisotrophy
A: Anisotrophy - the water can only flow alongside parallel to the fiber buddles, so then we knwo which direction axons go

Q: HOw can anisotrophy be used?
A: - With this we can make out a tractograhy and construct a structional connector of the human brain
  - With this we can see which brain regions are directly  connected to other brain regions with axons just using diffusion based MRI imaging -- on the macroscopic level (doesnt include polysymaptic connection)

Q: What doe sthe image show?
A: Anisotrophy

Q: WHat does this image show?
A: High-resolution connectivity matrix and connectivit backbone

Q: What is seen in this image?
A: Functional brain connectivity during rest with fMRI (resting finger tapping experiment with fMRI)

Q: What can be measured in the brain even if we are at rest?
A: Even if people rest we can measure spontaneous signals/connectivty - we have a network active in a motor system - premotor cotex and primary sensory motor cortex in both hemispheres are connected through sponatous connections

Q: WHat can be said about the activity of networks during rest?
A: Even we we aren't active there are a number of networks that based on this based on this spontaneous resting state fluctuations are there even we arent doing anything but they can be detected when people lie in the fMRI
- These are functional networks, not structural, coz we mearure signals over time and we corrolate tham and see how siimliar they are

Q: What does this picture show?
A: We measure the signal with fMRI in each brain region over time and see which signals corrolate the most and then we can make corrolation map
- In the pic, the more red the higher the connections are

Q: What does more red indicate in the pic?
A: More red - the higher number of/more the connections are

Q: What does the FPN stand for?
A: The fronto-Parietal attention network

Q: Which brain regions are involved in the FPN?
A: - Inferior parietal lobe
- Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- 24 nodes

Q: What does teh FPN do?
A: Supports phasic components of attentional control (adaptations after errors, task-switching)

Q: What do we think the FPN does?
A: - We think this network supports attentional control, task switching, descision making tec.
- Its one of the higher order congiative function netweorks in the brain

Q: What does DM/N stand for?
A: The default mode network

Q: How was the D/MN found?
A: This one was discorverd using PET and fMRI

Q: WHich brain regions are involved in the D/MN?
A: - Dorso-ventral prefrontal cortex
- Temporal pole, middle temporal gyrus
- Precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex
- pIPS - posterior intraparietal sulcus
- 57 nodes

Q: What does the D/MN do?
A: Its not clear what it does but experimental support that supports that  tihis is a network heavily invoved in intraspective self-referential cognitive processes
- Supports introspective
- Self-referential cognitive processes

Q: When does the brain's default network increase in activity?
A: Observed as increases in activity during tasks that are to the self (in a rather general sense)

Q: Which tasks that are to the self is the brains default network involved in?
A: - Autobiographical memory
- Envisioning the future
- Theory of mind
- Moral decision making

Q: What is meant by theory of mind?
A: Theory of mind - that u understand that other people have intentions, and wishes and desires - this network is activate

Q: What is the "theory of mind" used in research for?
A: Used in researching autism

Q: What can be said about the theory of mind from an evolutionary standpoint?
A: Also monkeys and rats have this network, evolutionary point of view perserved in animals

Q: What does DA stand for, concerning brain networks?
A: The dorsal attention network

Q: WHich regions are involved in the DA?
A: - SPL - superior parietal lobule
- MT - middle temporal motion complex
- SOG - superior occipital gyrus
- FEF - frontal eye fields
- 11 nodes

Q: What does the DA support?
A: Supprots selective attention in teh visual and spatial domains

Q: What does the DA do?
A: This network has also been found using resting state methods measuring activity during rest, but also when asking people to do tasks
- This network is very active in selective attention in visual-specral domains etc.

Q: What can be said about the relationship of function to brain area?
A: No strict 1:1 relationship between function and brain area exist in the brain

Q: What can generally be said about higher cognitive functions?
A: Higher cognitive functions are in general not strictly  localized to a single (or a few) areas in the brain

Q: What is at better way to think about cognition and brain function?
A: A better way to think about cognition and brain function might be a functional (dynamical) and structural networks

Q: What can be said about the challenge of scale in the brain?
A: Measurement of brain function can be conducted at many spatial (single neurons to fMRI) and temproal scales (milliseconds, EEG to monitoring changes across days and even years)

Q: What can be said about the 1:1 relationship between function and brain area for the pimary sensory area adn visual cortex?
A: Not even strict for the primary sensory area, although a predominance for visual cortex related to visual tasks, a lot of feed back loops including the thalamus and BG that feedsback info from higher cortical areas to primary sensory organs

Q: What can we measure using fMRI?
A: Using fMRI, etc, measure electrcal avtivity in the brain